- 10.00am - 5.30pm
- FREE
- Chelsea, London
- 10.00am - 5.30pm
- FREE
- Chelsea, London
State of affairs
In March 1945, British and Allied forces began their final push into the heart of Germany. Following weeks of intense preparation, Operation Plunder and its sister operation, Varsity, proved a complete and overwhelming success. The crossing of the Rhine was a hugely symbolic moment: it was the first time that any foreign army had traversed this imposing natural barrier since the age of Napoleon.
British soldiers now poured into Germany, encountering only sporadic pockets of resistance from retreating troops and civilian militias. On the Italian front, British and Allied preparations were under way for another decisive attack, set to be launched in April. While in the East, Soviet forces quashed the final major German offensive of the war, before pressing on towards Berlin. The total defeat of Nazi Germany, and the end of the war in Europe, was a matter of weeks away.
In Burma (now Myanmar), British and Indian forces made tremendous progress in March 1945. The capture and successful defence of Meiktila struck a huge blow to Japanese hopes of maintaining their position in central Burma. By the end of the month, the major city of Mandalay was also under British control and the remaining Japanese forces were in disarray. With news of the American capture of Iwo Jima in the Pacific, the war against Japan was fast approaching its denouement.
Across the world, expectations of an imminent Allied victory inspired efforts to shape the postwar peace. From the creation of the Arab League in Cairo to the decision of the Burma National Army to join the Allied cause, the struggle for power in the aftermath of the war was already under way. For many British soldiers, there was an emergent sense of hope – albeit often an unspoken one – that they might make it back home to their loved ones after all.
British soldiers clear German forces from the Reichswald
In early March, British and Allied forces defeated the remaining strongholds of German resistance west of the Rhine.
Above, Lieutenant Edward Deeming's Challenger A30 tank, camouflaged with foliage, is pictured at Hellmannshof, south of Uedem. British and Canadian units faced a particularly fierce battle to overcome the defenders of nearby Xanten.
‘Xanten had been bombed pretty thoroughly and cratering could be expected... The enemy who were thought to be elements of 1 Para. Corps, were tough troops and in some strength. A [Canadian Battalion] who had attempted to enter Xanten on the 5th had been given a very lively reception and had been forced to withdraw in great confusion... Things went very nearly to plan. Despite a lively reception from houses about 100 yds. The other side of the crater, the [Infantry] took the ditch after the Crocs [Crocodile flamethrower tanks] brassed up the area.’
War Diary, 141st Regiment (The Buffs), Royal Armoured Corps - 6 March 1945
Allied Military Government
When German towns were captured, a senior British or Allied officer would typically accept responsibility for the area. In line with ‘Proclamation No 1 – Military Government, Germany’, total compliance of the local population was expected, and strict curfews were enforced.
As the front line moved on, a Civil Affairs unit of the British Army would usually take control. To begin with, the priority was to maintain essential utilities and keep civilians from interfering with the Allied advance.
Above, Captain FA Fitton (centre) sits with two American colleagues at the Civil Affairs Staff Centre.
‘The Allied Forces serving under my command have now entered Germany. We come as conquerors, but not as oppressors. In the area of Germany occupied by the forces under my command, we shall obliterate Nazi-ism and German Militarism. We shall overthrow the Nazi rule, dissolve the Nazi Party and abolish the cruel, oppressive and discriminatory laws and institutions which the Party has created. We shall eradicate that German Militarism which has so often disrupted the peace of the world. Military and Party leaders, the Gestapo and others suspected of crimes and atrocities will be tried and, if guilty, punished as they deserve.’
General Eisenhower’s Proclamation No 1 – Military Government, Germany
Awaiting the advance across the Rhine
For many British soldiers, the advance to Germany was a hard slog, with limited opportunities for rest and recuperation behind the lines. Yet the inventive soldier always finds a way to pass the time. The image above, captioned 'Rhineland Blues', shows members of a British tank crew playing some tunes as they await their orders.
‘I proceeded a little way further to the Welfare Centre, and booked two seats for next Friday at the Opera for Shewell & myself, having learned that The Magic Flute was advertised that night... I don’t look forward to a very polished performance, but, as you can imagine, shall be intrigued to see how it pans out on the stage.’
Lieutenant Colonel Harold Newman writing home to his wife from 21 Army Group HQ, near the Rhine - 4 March 1945
US Forces secure Ludendorff Bridge
7 March 1945
On 7 March, advancing US Army units captured the last intact bridge over the Rhine at Remagen, south of Cologne. This was an unexpected bonus after retreating Germans had attempted to destroy all remaining crossing points. Nevertheless, preparations for a major amphibious assault to the north continued unabated.
Spring Offensive in Italy takes shape
In March 1945, preparations were under way for the Spring Offensive in Italy. US General Mark Clark, as overall commander of Allied forces in Italy, set out a battle plan. In a few weeks’ time, the British 8th Army would be tasked with crossing the River Senio as part of a general advance into the north of Italy. This picture shows a soldier following a taped path through a minefield near the river.
Lieutenant Riccomini’s silk escape map
10 March 1945
Lieutenant James Arthur Riccomini had served with the Royal Army Service Corps prior to his capture in 1941. As a prisoner of war, he met Colonel David Stirling, the founder of the Special Air Service (SAS), and joined the regiment soon after escaping captivity.
Riccomini took part in special operations deep behind enemy lines in Italy, including Operation Gallia. He died on 10 March 1945, while leading a raid on a German billet during Operation Tombola. Pictured above is his silk map of northern Italy. More durable than paper, it was produced to help SAS soldiers evade or escape capture.
‘[Y]ou do know Janey, don’t you, that whatever happens you will know that I always have loved you… And however much I stray & stay away from home, that is merely a combination of war circumstance & the way I happen to be built. But behind it all Jane my dear, there is a little point that I do happen to love you.’
Lieutenant James Arthur Riccomini’s poignant final letter to his wife, written prior to his death during Operation Tombola - 6 March 1945
Preparations for Operation Plunder
In anticipation of the final Allied push across the Rhine, a huge quantity of soldiers and machinery was amassed in the area between the towns of Rees and Wesel. This monumental logistical effort was even larger than that undertaken for the invasion of Normandy the previous year. From 16 March, a huge smoke screen (pictured above) was initiated to conceal Allied units from enemy view.
‘I told you we were going into the ring for the final and last round; there would be no time limit: we would continue fighting until our opponent was knocked out. The last round is going very well on both sides of the ring – and overhead… The enemy has in fact been driven into a corner, and he cannot escape. Events are moving rapidly. The complete and decisive defeat of the Germans is certain; there is no possibility of doubt on this matter. 21 ARMY GROUP WILL NOW CROSS THE RHINE.’
Personal message from the Commander-in-Chief, Field Marshal Montgomery, to 21st Army Group - March 1945
First edition of ‘Soldier’ magazine
In March 1945, a special issue of the first edition of ‘Soldier’ magazine was published in anticipation of the advance into Germany.
It included a message from Field Marshal Montgomery, who wrote that he was ‘glad to have this opportunity of being able to speak to all soldiers in the BLA [British Liberation Army]’ and assured them that victory was afoot. Yet he also sounded a warning about the ‘difficult days that will lie ahead when the fighting is over’.
Eighty years on, ‘Soldier’ remains the official magazine of the British Army.
Capture of Meiktila
The battle for Meiktila, a vital road and rail junction about 80 miles (125km) south of Mandalay, was a decisive moment in the Burma campaign. In early March, the Allies captured the town, effectively ending Japanese hopes of maintaining their position in central Burma. Pictured above are Indian infantrymen advancing towards Meiktila.
Siege of Meiktila
Japanese forces quickly launched a counterattack in the hope of recapturing Meiktila, which was vital to their supply lines in central Burma. Around 15,000 British and Indian troops faced an onslaught of Japanese attacks during a 30-day siege. By the end of March, the defenders still held the town, and enemy attacks abated.
‘We prepared to stay the night. The Guards were arranged – I was one – one crew erected their “mossie nets” on one side of the tanks and slept on the other side. The idea came from some infantry blokes who said that [the Japanese] just love “knocking you off” in your net… A few bangs were going off in the vicinity – nothing to worry about. That would have been alright, but the artillery we passed in the morning decided to open up. Shells were whizzing overhead. The explosions were terrific. We could feel the draught of each shot. It lasted all night.’
Signalman DO Rees, 400 Independent Scorpion Squadron, Paleik Railway Station, near Mandalay, Burma - 19 March 1945
Capture of Mandalay
20 March 1945
On 20 March, the 19th Indian Division completed the capture of Mandalay, the second largest city in Burma. Japanese forces steadfastly defended the Mandalay Palace (previously transformed into a British fortification known as Fort Dufferin). But, after an Allied bombing raid destroyed the palace, the surviving Japanese defenders retreated.
In the photograph above, a soldier of the Royal Bombay Sappers and Miners celebrates victory by writing the name of his unit next to a Japanese drawing on a wall of the grandstand at Mandalay racecourse.
‘It is now 6am and just cool. When I woke up I threw up the mosquito net for coolness and settled down to enjoy the situation. But no. One fly arrived, shouted to his friends and four more turned up… I am sharing this tent for living and working with another chap. His orderly is just getting up… He is a nice little lad, though from the point of view of his work it is not so good as he is not allowed by religious custom to touch food made from animals. Milk he can touch, but not eggs, as they mean the destruction of potential life. Life is good. We are on the move which is altogether better than where I was before.’
Captain Peter Whitfield Gallup, Royal Field Artillery, serving with Air Photo Intelligence, Burma - 27 March 1945
Burma National Army changes sides
With the capture of Meiktila and Mandalay, the reconquest of Burma was nearly complete. On 27 March, the news prompted the Burma National Army (BNA) to change sides and join the Allied cause.
The BNA (previously known as the Burmese Independence Army) had fought with the Japanese against British rule in Burma but now decisively broke with this alliance.
Arab League founded in Cairo
22 March 1945
In March 1945, Egypt, Iraq, Transjordan (now Jordan), Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria and North Yemen (now part of Yemen) agreed to form the Arab League, an international organisation intended to represent the interests of Middle Eastern nations.
Earlier in the war, the British government had supported the foundation of an Arab League to protect against the Axis threat in the region. But by now, with the fighting there more-or-less over, the Arab League’s anti-imperialist stance represented a potential threat to the continuation of British and French rule in the Middle East.
Operation Plunder
23 March 1945
On the night of 23 March, the 21st Army Group crossed the Rhine River. It was a colossal amphibious operation involving more than 1.25 million soldiers, a 5,000-gun artillery barrage, and a sustained period of aerial bombardment. There was only limited German resistance, and the operation was a complete success. As Allied forces swept into the heart of Germany, securing victory was now only a matter of time.
Bailey bridge over the Rhine
The prefabricated Bailey bridge was a British engineering marvel that proved vital to the success of Operation Plunder. It required no heavy equipment to install yet was strong enough to carry armour. Thousands were used during the advance through Western Europe. The example pictured above is at the town of Rees.
‘I went down with jaundice… and I eventually wound up in 25th General British Hospital in Brussels. I rejoined the battalion not long before the Rhine crossing on 23rd March. I missed the Reichswald thank goodness, it was a good miss I think… We crossed in Buffalos. My main memory is really how picturesque it was. You didn’t meet a lot of opposition crossing the river because it was at night, and you had all this tracer and shells going over which reflected in the river. But, of course, we ran into a lot of trouble when we got over there.’
Corporal AC Jenkins recalling the crossing of the Rhine - 23 March 1945
Operation Varsity
24 March 1945
On 24 March, Field Marshal Montgomery launched Operation Varsity, a sister operation to the previous day’s river crossings. This huge airborne undertaking involved 16,000 British, American and Canadian paratroopers landing on the eastern bank of the Rhine. They helped secure a bridgehead and hastened the Allied advance. Above, we see British tank crews observing the air armada.
Churchill and Monty visit the troops
25 March 1945
On 25 March, Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Field Marshal Montgomery visited front-line troops following their successful crossing of the Rhine.
Churchill himself attempted to make the crossing in an Allied landing craft - a symbolic, if rather dangerous, endeavour. His boat was forced to turn back when it reached a bridge still under enemy fire.
British troops advance through the Rhineland
As the Allied forces pushed into the Rhineland, they saw first-hand the extent of the damage inflicted by months of heavy bombardment. As much as 97 per cent of the town of Wesel (pictured) was destroyed through a combination of German sabotage, Allied bombing and the artillery bombardment during Operation Plunder.
From a prewar population of 25,000, fewer than 2,000 people remained in Wesel at the end of the conflict. It was a reality that would put a huge strain upon local civilians, as well as the Civil Affairs units of the British Army.
Above, Sergeant Murdock, accompanied by his fellow Commandos, sports a First World War-era German helmet found in the Wesel rubble.
Final V-2 rockets launched
27 March 1945
The German V-2 rocket, a long-range guided ballistic missile, was developed as a ‘vengeance weapon’ and had been used to bomb Allied cities since September 1944.
On 27 March 1945, the final two V-2 rockets were launched. Both exploded on British soil, one killing 34-year-old civilian Ivy Millichamp in her home in Orpington, Kent. She was the last civilian casualty of the war in Britain.
Advancing Allied forces soon captured the launch sites and finally nullified the threat of rocket attacks.
The fight goes on
Despite the inevitability of Germany’s defeat, Allied forces encountered sporadic and sometimes fierce resistance from fleeing German army units, ad hoc squads of SS soldiers and members of the newly formed Volkssturm (‘people’s storm’).
The latter was a national civilian militia, comprising mainly teenagers and elderly men often without training, adequate equipment or even uniform. The image above shows young German prisoners of war captured near Bocholt in late March.
For many German civilians, the alternative to fighting was risking execution at the hands of roaming Nazi death squads on the hunt for supposed traitors.
On This Day: 1945
This is the third instalment of a series exploring the British Army's role in 1945 - one of the most decisive years in modern history - drawing upon the National Army Museum's vast collection of objects, photographs and personal testimonies.
Throughout 2025, a new instalment will be released each month that focuses on events from 80 years beforehand. The series will highlight the everyday experiences of Britain’s soldiers alongside events of grand historical significance.
Explore further
